4.4 Plant Physiology

4.4.1 Mechanisms of Absorption

Amongst the main mechanisms involved in plant nutrition, the most important is the absorption which, for the majority of the nutrients, takes place in ionic form following the hydrolysis of salts dissolved in the nutrient solution.

Active roots are the main organ of the plant involved in nutrient absorption. Anions and cations are absorbed from the nutrient solution, and, once inside the plant, they cause the protons (Hsup+/sup) or hydroxyls (OHsup-/sup) to exit which maintains the balance between the electric charges (Haynes 1990). This process, whilst maintaining the ionic equilibrium, can cause changes in the pH of the solution in relation to the quantity and quality of the nutrients absorbed (Fig. 4.6).

The practical implications of this process for the horticulturist are two-fold: to provide adequate buffer capability to the nutrient solution (adding bicarbonates if needed) and to induce slight pH changes with the choice of fertilizer. The effect of fertilizers on the pH relates to the different chemical forms of the used compounds.

Fig. 4.6 Ion absorption by the root system of a plant

In the case of N, for example, the most commonly used form is nitric nitrogen (NOsub3/subsup-/sup), but when the pH should be lowered, nitrogen can be supplied as ammonium nitrogen (NHsub4/subsup+/sup). This form, when absorbed, induces the release of Hsup+/sup and consequently an acidification of the medium.

Climatic conditions, especially air and substrate temperature and relative humidity, exert a major influence on the absorption of nutrients (Pregitzer and King 2005; Masclaux-Daubresse et al. 2010; Marschner 2012; Cortella et al. 2014). In general, the best growth occurs where there are few differences between substrate and air temperature. However, persistently high temperature levels in the root system have a negative effect. Sub-optimal temperatures reduce the absorption of N (Dong et al. 2001). Whilst NHsub4/subsup+/sup is effectively used at optimum temperatures, at low temperatures, the bacterial oxidation is reduced, causing accumulation within the plant that can produce symptoms of toxicity and damage to the root system and the aerial biomass. Low temperatures at the root level also inhibit the assimilation of K and P, as well as the P translocation. Although the available information regarding the effect of low temperatures on the absorption of micronutrients is less clear, it appears that Mn, Zn, Cu, and Mo uptake are most affected (Tindall et al. 1990; Fageria et al. 2002).

4.4.2 Essential Nutrients, Their Role and Possible Antagonisms

The appropriate management of plant nutrition must be based on basic aspects that are influenced by uptake and use of macro, and micro-nutrients (Sonneveld and Voogt 2009). Macro-nutrients are needed in relatively large amounts, whilst micronutrients or trace elements are needed in small amounts. Furthermore, nutrient availability to the plant in the case of the soilless systems presents more or less consistent phenomena of synergy and antagonism (Fig. 4.7).

Nitrogen (N) Nitrogen is absorbed by plants to produce amino acids, proteins, enzymes and chlorophyll. The most used nitrogen forms for plant fertilization are nitrate and ammonium. Nitrates are quickly absorbed by the roots, are highly movable inside the plants and can be stored without toxic effects. Ammonium can be absorbed by plants only in low quantities and cannot be stored at high quantities because it exerts toxic effects. Quantities higher than 10 mg Lsup-1/sup inhibit plant calcium and copper uptake, increase the shoot growth compared to root growth and result in a strong green colour of the leaves. Further excesses in ammonia concentration result in phytotoxic effects such as chlorosis along the leaves’ margins. Excess in nitrogen supply causes high vegetative growth, increase of crop cycle length, strong green leaf colour, low fruit set, high content of water in the tissues, low tissue lignification and high tissue nitrate accumulation. Commonly, nitrogen deficiency is characterized by a pale green colour of the older leaves (chlorosis), reduced growth and senescence advance.

Fig. 4.7 Nutrients synergies and antagonisms amongst ions. Connected ions present synergistic or antagonistic relationship according to the direction of the arrow

Potassium (K) Potassium is fundamental for cell division and extension, protein synthesis, enzyme activation and photosynthesis and also acts as a transporter of other elements and carbohydrates through the cell membrane. It has an important role in keeping the osmotic potential of the cell in equilibrium and regulating the stomatal opening. The first signs of deficiency are manifested in the form of yellowish spots that very quickly necrotize on the margins of the older leaves. Potassium deficient plants are more susceptible to sudden temperature drops, water stress and fungal attacks (Wang et al. 2013).

Phosphorus (P) Phosphorus stimulates roots development, the rapid growth of buds and flower quantity. P is absorbed very easily and can be accumulated without damage to the plant. Its fundamental role is linked to the formation of high-energy compounds (ATP) necessary for plant metabolism. The average quantities requested by plants are rather modest (10—15% of the needs of N and K) (Le Bot et al. 1998). However, unlike what occurs in soil, P is easily leachable in soilless crops. The absorption of P appears to be reduced by low substrate temperatures (\ 13 ˚C) or at increasing pH values (\ 6.5) which can lead to deficiency symptoms (Vance et al. 2003). Under these conditions a temperature increase and/or pH reduction is more effective than additional amendments of phosphorus fertilizers. P excess can reduce or block the absorption of some other nutrients (e.g. K, Cu, Fe) (Fig. 4.7). Phosphorus deficiency manifests in a green-violet colour of the older leaves, which may follow chlorosis and necrosis in addition to the stunted growth of the vegetative apex. However, these symptoms are non-specific and make P deficiencies difficult to be identified (Uchida 2000).

Calcium (Ca) Calcium is involved in cell wall formation, membrane permeability, cell division and extension. Good availability gives the plant greater resistance to fungal attacks and bacterial infections (Liu et al. 2014). The absorption is very closely linked to the water flow between roots and aerial parts. Its movement occurs through the xylem and is therefore particularly influenced by low temperatures at the root level, by reduced water supply (drought or salinity of the solution) or by excessive relative humidity of the air. As Ca is not mobile within the plant, deficiencies start from the most recently formed parts (Adams 1991; Adams and Ho 1992; Ho et al. 1993). The main symptoms are plant growth being stunted, deformation of the margins of the younger leaves, light green or sometimes chlorotic colouring of new tissues and a stunted root system without fine roots. The deficiencies are displayed in different ways, e.g. apical rot in tomato and/or marginal browning of leaves in lettuce.

Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium is involved in the constitution of chlorophyll molecules. It is immobilized at pH values below 5.5 and enters into competition with the absorption of K and Ca (Fig. 4.7). Symptoms of deficiency are yellowing between leaf veins and internal chlorosis of the basal leaves. As Mg can be easily mobilized, magnesium-deficient plants will first break down chlorophyll in the older leaves and transport the Mg to younger leaves. Therefore, the first sign of magnesium deficiency is the interveinal chlorosis in older leaves, contrary to iron deficiency where interveinal chlorosis first appears in the youngest leaves (Sonneveld and Voogt 2009).

Sulphur (S) Sulphur is required by the plant in quantities comparable to those of phosphorus, and in order to optimize its absorption, it must be present in a 1:10 ratio with nitrogen (McCutchan et al. 2003). It is absorbed as sulphate. The deficiencies are not easily detected, as the symptoms can be confused with those of nitrogen deficiency, except that the deficiency of nitrogen begins to manifest itself from the older leaves, whilst that of sulphur from the youngest ones (Schnug and Haneklaus 2005). S nutrition has a significant role in ameliorating the damages in photosynthetic apparatus caused by Fe-deficiency (Muneer et al. 2014).

Iron (Fe) Iron is one of the most important micro-nutrients because it is key in many biological processes such as photosynthesis (Briat et al. 2015; Heuvelink and Kierkels 2016). To improve its absorption, the nutrient solution pH should be around 5.5—6.0, and the Mn content should not be allowed to become too high because the two elements subsequently enter into competition (Fig. 4.7). The optimal ratio of Fe— Mn is around 2:1 for most crops (Sonneveld and Voogt 2009). At low temperatures, the assimilation efficiency is reduced. The deficiency symptoms are characterized by interveinal chlorosis from the young leaves towards the older basal ones, and by reduced root system growth. Symptoms of deficiency are not always due to the low presence of Fe in the nutrient solution, but often they are due to the Fe unavailability for the plant. The use of chelating agents guarantees constant availability of Fe for the plant.

Chlorine (Cl) Chlorine has been recently considered a micro-nutrient, even if its content in plants (0.2—2.0% dw) is quite high. It is easily absorbed by the plant and is very mobile within it. It is involved in the photosynthetic process and the regulation of the stomata opening. Deficiencies, which are rather infrequent, occur with typical symptoms of leaves drying out, especially at the margins. Much more widespread is the damage due to an excess of Cl that leads to conspicuous plant shrinkage which is relative to the different sensitivities of different species. To avoid crop damage, it is always advisable to check the Cl content in the water used to prepare nutrient solutions and choose suitable fertilizers (e.g. Ksub2/subSOsub4/sub rather than KCl).

Sodium (Na) Sodium, if in excess, is harmful to plants, as it is toxic and interferes with the absorption of other ions. The antagonism with K (Fig. 4.7), for example, is not always harmful because in some species (e.g. tomatoes), it improves the fruit taste, whereas in others (e.g. beans), it can reduce plant growth. Similar to Cl, it is important to know the concentration in the water used to prepare the nutrient solution (Sonneveld and Voogt 2009).

Manganese (Mn) Manganese forms part of many coenzymes and is involved in the extension of root cells and their resistance to pathogens. Its availability is controlled by the pH of the nutrient solution and by competition with other nutrients (Fig. 4.7). Symptoms of deficiency are similar to those of the Fe except for the appearance of slightly sunken areas in the interveinal areas (Uchida 2000). Corrections can be made by adding MnSOsub4/sub or by lowering the pH of the nutrient solution.

Boron (B) Boron is essential for fruit setting and seed development. The absorption methods are similar to those already described for Ca with which it can compete. The pH of the nutrient solution must be below 6.0 and the optimal level seems to be between 4.5 and 5.5. Symptoms of deficiency can be detected in the new structures that appear dark green, the young leaves greatly increase their thickness and have a leathery consistency. Subsequently they can appear chlorotic and then necrotic, with rusty colouring.

Zinc (Zn) Zinc plays an important role in certain enzymatic reactions. Its absorption is strongly influenced by the pH and the P supply of the nutrient solution. pH values between 5.5 and 6.5 promote the absorption of Zn. Low temperature and high P levels reduce the amount of zinc absorbed by the plant. Zinc deficiencies occur rarely, and are represented by chlorotic spots in the interveinal areas of the leaves, very short internodes, leaf epinasty and poor growth (Gibson 2007).

Copper (Cu) Copper is involved in respiratory and photosynthetic processes. Its absorption is reduced at pH values higher than 6.5, whilst pH values lower than 5.5 may result in toxic effects (Rooney et al. 2006). High levels of ammonium and phosphorus interact with Cu reducing the availability of the latter. The excessive presence of Cu interferes with the absorption of Fe, Mn and Mo. The deficiencies are manifested by interveinal chlorosis which leads to the collapse of the leaf tissues that look like desiccated (Gibson 2007).

Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is essential in protein synthesis and in nitrogen metabolism. Contrary to other micro-nutrients, it is better available at neutral pH values. Symptoms of deficiency start with chlorosis and necrosis along the main rib of old leaves, whilst the young leaves appear deformed (Gibson 2007).

4.4.3 Nutrient Management in Relation to the Requirements of Plants

Since the development of soilless horticulture systems in the 1970s (Verwer 1978; Cooper 1979), different nutrient solutions have been developed and adjusted according to the growers’ preferences (Table 4.4; De Kreij et al. 1999). All mixes follow the principles of excess availability of all elements to prevent deficiencies and balance between (bivalent) cations to avoid competition between cations in plant nutrient uptake (Hoagland and Arnon 1950; Steiner 1961; Steiner 1984; Sonneveld and Voogt 2009). Commonly, the EC is allowed to rise in the root zone to a limited degree. In tomatoes, for example, the nutrient solution typically has an EC of ca. 3 dS msup-1/sup, whilst in the root zone in the stone wool slabs, the EC may rise to 4—5 dS msup-1/sup. However, in northern European countries, for the first irrigation of new stone wool slabs at the beginning of the production cycle, the nutrient solution may have an EC as high as 5 dS msup-1/sup, saturating the stone wool substrate with ions up to an EC of 10 dS msup-1/sup, which will subsequently be flushed after 2 weeks. To provide sufficient flushing of the root zone, in a typical drip-irrigation stone wool slab system, about 20—50% of the dosed water is collected as drainage water. The drainage water is then recycled, filtered, mixed with fresh water and topped up with nutrients for use in the next cycle (Van Os 1994).

In tomato production, increasing the EC can be applied to enhance lycopene synthesis (promoting the bright red coloration of the fruits), total soluble solids (TSS) and fructose and glucose content (Fanasca et al. 2006; Wu and Kubota 2008). Furthermore, tomato plants have higher absorption rates for N, P, Ca and Mg and low absorption of K during the early (vegetative) stages. Once the plants start developing fruits, leaf production is slowed down leading to a reduction in N and Ca requirements, whilst K requirement increases (e.g. Zekki et al. 1996; Silber, Bar-Tal 2008). In lettuce, on the other hand, an increased EC may promote tip-burn disease during hot growing conditions. Huett (1994) showed a significant decrease in the number of leaves with tip-burn disease per plant when the EC was dropped from 3.6 to 0.4 dS msup-1/sup, as well as when the nutrient formulation K/Ca was reduced from 3.5:1 to 1.25:1. In AP the management of nutrients is more difficult than in hydroponics since they mainly depend on fish stock density, feed type and feeding rates.

4.4.4 Nutrient Solution Properties

Phosphorus is an element which occurs in forms that are strongly dependent on environmental pH. In the root zone, this element can be found as POsub4/subsup-3/sup, HPOsub4/subsup2-/sup and Hsub2/subPOsub4/subsup-/sup ions, where the last two ions are the main forms of P taken up by the plants. Thus, when the pH is slightly acidic (pH 5—6), the largest amount of P is presented in a nutrient solution (De Rijck and Schrevens 1997).

Potassium, calcium and magnesium are available to plants in a wide range of pH. However, the presence of other ions may interfere in their plant availability due to the formation of compounds with different grades of solubility. At a pH above 8.3, Casup2+/sup and Mgsup2+/sup ions easily precipitate as carbonates by reacting with COsub3/subsup2-/sup. Also sulphate forms relatively strong complexes with Casup2+/sup and Mgsup2+/sup (De Rijck and Schrevens 1998). As pH increases from 2 to 9, the amount of SOsub4/subsup2-/sup forming soluble complexes with Mgsup2+/sup as MgSOsub4/sub and with Ksup+/sup as KSOsub4/subsup-/sup increases (De Rijck and Schrevens 1999). In general, nutrient availability for plant uptake at pH above 7 may be restricted due to a precipitation of Boron, Fesup2+/sup, Mnsup2+/sup, POsub4/subsup3-/sup, Casup2+/sup and Mgsup2+/sup due to insoluble and unavailable salts. The most appropriate pH values of the nutrient solution for the development of crops lie between 5.5 and 6.5 (Sonneveld and Voogt 2009).

4.4.5 Water Quality and Nutrients

The quality of the supplied water is extremely important in hydroponic and AP systems. For long-term recirculation, the chemical composition should be well known and monitored frequently to avoid an imbalance in nutrient supply but also to avoid the accumulation of certain elements leading to toxicity. De Kreij et al. (1999) made an overview of the chemical demands on water quality for hydroponic systems.

Before starting, an analysis of the water supply has to be made on the macro- and microelements. Based on the analysis, a scheme for the nutrient solution can be made. For example, if rainwater is used, special attention has to be made for Zn when collection takes place via untreated gutters. In tap water, problems may appear with Na, Ca, Mg, SOsub4/sub and HCOsub3/sub. Furthermore, surface and bore hole water may be used which may also contain amounts of Na, Cl, K, Ca, Mg, SOsub4/sub and Fe but also microelements as Mn, Zn, B and Cu. It should be noted that all valves and pipes should be made of synthetic materials such as PVC and PE, and not containing Ni or Cu parts.

It often happens that water supplies contain a certain amount of Ca and Mg; therefore, the contents have to be subtracted from the amount in the nutrient solution to avoid accumulation of these ions. HCOsub3/sub has to be compensated preferably by nitric acid, about 0.5 mmol Lsup-1/sup that can be maintained as a pH buffer in the nutrient solution. Phosphoric and sulphuric acid can also be possibly used to compensate pH, but both will rapidly give a surplus of Hsub2/subPOsub4/subsup-/sup or SOsub4/subsup2-/sup in the nutrient solution. In AP systems nitric acid (HNOsub3/sub) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) can be also used to regulate pH and at same time supply macronutrients in the system (Nozzi et al. 2018).

4.4.5.1 Water Quality Management

For the formulation of nutrient solutions, simple fertilizers (granular, powder or liquid) and substances (e.g. acid compounds) that affect the pH are preferably used. The integration of the nutrient elements into the solution takes into account the optimum values of the quantities of each element. This has to be made in relation to the requirements of the species and its cultivars considering phenological phases and substrate. The calculation of nutrient supplements must be carried out considering the conditions of the water used, according to a strict set of priorities. On the priority scale, magnesium and sulphates are positioned at the bottom, at the same level, because they have less nutritional importance and the plants do not present damage even if their presence is abundant in the nutrient solution. This characteristic has an advantageous practical feedback as it allows an exploitation of the two elements in order to balance the nutritional composition with respect to other macronutrients whose deficiency or excess may be negative for production. As an example, we can consider a nutrient solution where an integration of only potassium or only nitrate is required. The salts to be used, in this case, are respectively potassium sulphate or magnesium nitrate. In fact, if the most common potassium nitrate or calcium nitrate were used, the levels of nitrate, in the first case, and calcium, in the second case, would automatically increase. Moreover, when the analysis of the water used shows an imbalance between cations and anions, and in order to be able to calculate a nutrient solution with the EC in equilibrium, the correction of the water values is carried out reducing the levels of magnesium and/or sulphates.

The following points provide guidelines for the formulation of nutrient solutions:

1. Definition of the species and cultivar requirements. Consideration of the cultivation environment and the characteristics of water need to be taken into account. In order to satisfy the needs of the plants in warm periods and with intense radiation, the solution must possess a lower EC and K content, which contrasts to a higher quantity of Ca. Instead, when the temperature and brightness reach sub-optimal levels, it is advisable to raise the values of the EC and K by reducing those of the Ca. It is important to note regarding cultivars that there are substantial variations, especially for the values of the NOsub3/subsup-/sup, due to the different vegetative vigorousness of the cultivars. For tomatoes, in fact, 15 mmol Lsup-1/sup of NOsub3/subsup-/sup is used on average (Table 4.4), and in the case of cultivars characterized by low vegetative vigour and in certain phenological phases (e.g. fruit setting of the fourth trusses), up to 20 mM Lsup-1/sup of NOsub3/subsup-/sup is adopted. In case that some elements such as Na are present in the water, in order to reduce its effect, which is particularly negative for some crops, it will be necessary to increase the amount of NOsub3/subsup-/sup and Ca and possibly decrease the K, keeping the EC at the same level.

Table 4.4 Nutrient solution in hydroponic cultivation of lettuce (DFT) tomato, pepper and cucumber (stone wool slabs drip irrigation) in the Netherlands (De Kreiji et al.1999)

table thead tr class=“header” th rowspan=“2”/th thpH/th thEC/th thNHsub4/sub/th thK/th thCa/th thmg/th thNOsub3/sub/th thSOsub4/sub/th thP/th thFe/th thMn/th thZn/th thB/th thCu/th thMo/th /tr tr class=“header” th/th thdS msup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th thmmol Lsup-1/sup/th /tr /thead tbody tr class=“odd” tdLettuce (Wageningen UR)/td td5.9/td td1.7/td td1.0/td td4.4/td td4.5/td td1.8/td td10.6/td td1.5/td td1.5/td td28.1/td td1.5/td td6.4/td td47.0/td td1.0/td td0.7/td /tr tr class=“even” tdLettuce/td td5.8/td td1.2/td td0.7/td td4.8/td td2.3/td td0.8/td td8.9/td td0.8/td td1.0/td td35.1/td td4.9/td td3.0/td td18.4/td td0.5/td td0.5/td /tr tr class=“odd” tdLettuce/td td5.8/td td1.2/td td/td td3.0/td td2.5/td td1.0/td td7.5/td td1.0/td td0.5/td td50.0/td td3.7/td td0.6/td td4.8/td td0.5/td td0.01/td /tr tr class=“even” tdTomato generative/td td5.5/td td2.6-3.0/td td1.2/td td13.0/td td4.2/td td1.9/td td15.4/td td4.7/td td1.5/td td15.0/td td10.0/td td5.0/td td30.0/td td0.8/td td0.5/td /tr tr class=“odd” tdTomato vegetative/td td5.5/td td2.6/td td1.2/td td8.3/td td5.7/td td2.7/td td15.4/td td4.7/td td1.5/td td15.0/td td10.0/td td5.0/td td30.0/td td0.8/td td0.5/td /tr tr class=“even” tdCucumber/td td5.5/td td3.2/td td1.2/td td10.4/td td6.7/td td2.0/td td23.3/td td1.5-2.0/td td1.5-2.0/td td15.0/td td10.0/td td5.0/td td25.0/td td0.8/td td0.5/td /tr tr class=“odd” tdPepper/td td5.6/td td2.5-3.0/td td1.2/td td5-7/td td4-5/td td2.0/td td17.0/td td1.8-2.0/td td1.5-2.5/td td25.0/td td10.0/td td7.0/td td30.0/td td1.0/td td0.5/td /tr tr class=“even” tdPlant propagation/td td5.5/td td2.3/td td1.2/td td6.8/td td4.5/td td3.0/td td16.8/td td2.5/td td1.3/td td25.0/td td10.0/td td5.0/td td35.0/td td1.0/td td0.5/td /tr /tbody /table

Adopted and modified from Vermeulen (2016, personal communication)

2. Nutrient requirement calculations should be obtained by subtracting the values ofthe chemical elements of the water from the chemical elements defined above. For example, the established need for Mg of peppers (Capsicum sp.) is 1.5 mM Lsup-1/sup, having the water at 0.5 mM Lsup-1/sup, and 1.0 mM Lsup-1/sup of Mg should be added to the water (1.5 requirement — 0.5 water supply = 1.0).

3. Choice and calculation of fertilizers and acids to be used. For example, having toprovide Mg, as in the example of point 2 above, MgSOsub4/sub or Mg(NOsub3/sub)sub2/sub can be used. A decision will be made taking into account the collateral contribution of sulphate or nitrate as well.

4.4.6 Comparison Between Hydroponic and Aquaponic Production

During their life cycle, plants need several essential macro- and microelements for regular development (boron, calcium, carbon, chlorine, copper, hydrogen, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, potassium, sulphur, zinc), usually absorbed from the nutrient solution (Bittsanszky et al. 2016). The nutrient concentration and ratio amongst them are the most important variables capable to influence plant uptake. In AP systems fish metabolic wastes contain nutrients for the plants, but it must be taken into account, especially at commercial scales, that the nutrient concentrations supplied by the fish in AP systems are significantly lower and unbalanced for most nutrients compared to hydroponic systems (Nicoletto et al. 2018). Usually, in AP, with appropriate fish stocking rates, the levels of nitrate are sufficient for good plant growth, whereas the levels of K and P are generally insufficient for maximum plant growth. Furthermore, calcium and iron could also be limited. This can reduce the crop yield and quality and so nutrient integration should be carried out to support an efficient nutrient reuse. Microbial communities play a crucial role in the nutrient dynamic of AP systems (Schmautz et al. 2017), converting ammonium to nitrate, but also contributing to the processing of particulate matter and dissolved waste in the system (Bittsanszky et al. 2016). Plant uptake of N and P represents only a fraction of the amount removed from the water (Trang and Brix 2014), indicating that microbial processes in the root zone of the plants, and in the substrate (if present) and throughout the whole system, play a major role.

The composition of fish feeds depends on the type of fish and this influences nutrient release from fish’s metabolic output. Typically, fish feed contains an energy source (carbohydrates and/or lipids), essential amino acids, vitamins, as well as other organic molecules that are necessary for normal metabolism but some that the fish’s cells cannot synthesize. Furthermore, it must be taken into account that a plant’s nutritional requirements vary with species (Nozzi et al. 2018), variety, life cycle stage, day length and weather conditions and that recently (Parent et al. 2013; Baxter 2015), the Liebig’s law (plant growth is controlled by the scarcest resource) has been superseded by complex algorithms that consider the interactions between the individual nutrients. Both these aspects do not allow a simple evaluation of the effects of changes in nutrient concentrations in hydroponic or AP systems.

The question thus arises whether it is necessary and effective to add nutrients to AP systems. As reported by Bittsanszky et al. (2016), AP systems can only be operated efficiently and thus successfully, if special care is taken through the continuous monitoring of the chemical composition of the recirculating water for adequate concentrations and ratios of nutrients and of the potentially toxic component, ammonium. The necessity to add nutrients depends on plant species and growth stage. Frequently, although fish density is optimal for nitrogen supply, the addition of P and K with mineral fertilizers, at least, should be carried out (Nicoletto et al. 2018). In contrast to, for example, lettuce, tomatoes which need to bear fruit, mature and ripen, need supplemental nutrients. In order to calculate these needs, a software can be used, such as HydroBuddy which is a free software (Fernandez 2016) that is used to calculate the amount of required mineral nutrient supplements.